| Walden Two | |
|---|---|
| Author(s) | B. F. Skinner |
| Country | United States of America |
| Language | English |
| Genre(s) | Science fiction, Utopian novel |
| Publisher | Hackett Publishing Company |
| Publication date | 1948 |
| Media type | |
| Pages | 301 |
| ISBN | ISBN 0-87220-779-X |
| OCLC Number | 75310838 |
Walden Two is a utopian novel written by behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner, first published in 1948. In its time, it could have been considered to be science fiction, as the methods employed to alter people's behaviour did not yet exist.[1][2]
Contents |
Walden Two describes a small, thousand-person planned community based upon the ideas of a 'community of philosophers' posited by H. D. Thoreau and Skinner's then as yet uncreated 'technology of behavior' (what might now be called the very real area of Applied behavior analysis). Frazier and five others are the governing Planners. The community is self-sufficient, emulating the self-sufficiency of the Walden utopia. However, one important difference is that experimental control is used to shape the community. As a pilot scientific experiment, the way things are done is changeable if the evidence favors change.
The community members are happy, productive, and creative; happiness derives from the promotion of rich social relationships and family life, free affection, the creation of art, music, and literature, opportunity for games of chess and tennis, and ample rest, food, and sleep. The community is self-governed; the members subscribe to the Walden Code of self-control techniques, which allow maintaining a happy, productive life in Walden Two with minimal strain. Self-governance, however, is supplemented with community counselors who supervise behaviour and are available to help the members with their problems in following the Walden Code.
Walden Two has a constitution that "can be changed by a unanimous vote of the Planners and a two-thirds vote of the Managers".[3]
The constitution provides for a "Board of Planners", which is Walden Two's "only government".[4] "Board of Planners" is a name that "goes back to the days when Walden Two existed only on paper".[4] "There are six Planners, usually three men and three women".[4] "The Planners are charged with the success of the community. They make policies, review the work of the Managers, keep an eye on the state of the nation in general. They also have certain judicial functions."[4] A Planner "may serve for ten years, but no longer."[4] A vacancy on the Board of Planners is filled by the Board "from a pair of names supplied by the Managers".[4]
Managers are "specialists in charge of the divisions and services of Walden Two".[4] A member of the community can "work up to be a Manager--through intermediate positions which carry a good deal of responsibility and provide the necessary apprenticeship".[5] The Managers are not elected by the members of Walden Two.[5] The method of selecting Managers is not specified; however, since the Board of Planners is Walden Two's "only government",[4] it is reasonable to suppose that Managers are appointed by the Board of Planners.
Walden Two has Planners, Managers, Workers, and Scientists. The Scientists conduct experiments "in plant and animal breeding, the control of infant behavior, educational processes of several sorts, and the use of some of our [Walden Two's] raw materials".[6] The method of selecting Scientists is not specified but it is again reasonable to suppose that Scientists are appointed by the Board of Planners.
Walden Two's title is a reference to Henry David Thoreau's book Walden. In the novel, the Walden Community is mentioned as having the benefits of living in a place like Thoreau's Walden, but "with company". It is, as the book says, 'Walden for two' - meaning a community and not a place of solitude. Originally, Skinner indicated that he wanted to title it The Sun is but a Morning Star, a clear reference to Thoreau's Walden, but the publishers suggested the current title as an alternative.[7]
In theory and in practice, Thoreau's Walden experiment and the Walden Two experiment were far different from one another. For instance, Thoreau's Walden espouses the virtues of self-reliance at the individual level, while Walden Two espouses (1) the virtues of self-reliance at the community level, and (2) Skinner's underlying premise that free will of the individual is weak compared to how environmental conditions shape behavior .
Skinner published a follow up to Walden Two in an essay titled News From Nowhere, 1984.[8] It details the discovery of Eric Blair in the community who seeks out and meets Burris, confessing his true identity as George Orwell. Blair seeks out Frazier as the 'leader' and the two have discussions which comprise the essay. Skinner, as Frazier, mentions that Walden Two has "no institutionalized system of government, religion, or economics" and relates this to the goal of 19th century anarchism.
Many efforts to create a Walden Two in real life are detailed in Hilke Kuhlmann's Living Walden Two[9] and in Daniel W. Bjork's B.F.Skinner.
Some of them include:
Twin Oaks is detailed in Kat Kinkade's book, Twin Oaks: A Walden Two Experiment.[12] Originally started as a Walden Two community, it has since rejected its Walden Two position, however it still uses its modified Planner-Manager system as well as a system of labor credits based on the book.
Los Horcones is described as being 'Walden Two' inspired by their website, but appears to have rejected the Planner-Manager system in favor of what it describes as 'Personocracy'.[13] It is strongly Radical behaviorist though, which it claims as the basis for the title of a Walden Two community.
Skinner wrote about cultural engineering in at least two books, devoting a chapter to it in both Science and Human Behavior and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. In Science and Human Behavior[14] a chapter is titled "Designing a Culture" and expands on this position as well as in other documents. In Beyond Freedom and Dignity there are many indirect references to Walden Two when describing other cultural designs.
Hilke Kuhlmann's Living Walden Two possesses many subtle and not-so-subtle criticisms of the original Walden Two which are related to the actual efforts that arose from the novel. One criticism is that many of the founders of real-life Walden Twos identified with, or wanted to emulate, Frazier, the uncharismatic and implicitly despotic founder of the community.
In a critique of Walden Two, Harvey L. Gamble, Jr. asserted that Skinner's "fundamental thesis is that individual traits are shaped from above, by social forces that create the environment", and that Skinner's goal "is to create a frictionless society where individuals are properly socialized to function with others as a unit", and to thus "make the community [Walden Two] into a perfectly efficient anthill".[15] Gamble writes, "We find at the end of Walden Two that Frazier [a founding member of Walden Two]... has sole control over the political system and its policies. It is he who regulates food, work, education, and sleep, and who sets the moral and economic agenda." However, contrary to Gamble's critique, it should be noted that neither Frazier nor any other person has the sole power to amend the constitution of Walden Two. See the "Community governance" section, above.